Teaching Aids(Teaching of Mathematics)

PROJECTED AND NON- PROJECTED AIDS

AUDIO VISUAL   AIDS

  Audiovisual  aids  are  defined  as  any  device used  to  aid  in  the  communication  of  an  idea. From  this  definition,  virtually  anything  can  be used  as  an  aid,  providing  it  successfully  communicates the idea or information for which it is designed.  In  this  chapter,  we  not  only  use  the term  “Audiovisual  Aids”  but  “Instructional Aids,”   “Teaching   Aids,”   “Audio   Aids,”   and” Visual  Aids”  as  well.  An  audiovisual  products   any   audiovisual   (AV)   item   such   as   still photography,  motion  picture,  audio  or  videotape, slide or filmstrip, that is prepared singly Orin  combination  to  communicate  information  onto  elicit  a  desired  audience  response.  Even though  early  aids,  such  as  maps  and  drawings, are still in use, advances in the audiovisual field have opened up new methods of presenting these aids,  such  as  videotapes  and  multimedia  equipment  which  allow  more  professional  and  enter-training  presentations  to  be  presented.  Most  of the  visual  aids  covered  in  this  chapter  can  be grouped  into  the  following  categories—no projected  aids  and  projected  aids.

                                          

·         PROJECTED AIDS

Projected   aids   are   those   that   require audiovisual equipment in order to be presented properly.  Some of the aids included in this category   are   slides,   filmstrips,   overhead transparencies (vu-graphs), and motion pictures. It  is  important  to  remember  that  most  no projected  aids  may  be  adapted  for  use  as  projected aids. A chart, for example, can be photographed and made into a slide.

v     SLIDES  AND  FILMSTRIPS: Anything  that  can  be  photographed  can  be made  into  a  slide.  Slides are one of the best known   projected   aids.   They   are   found   in   all types and levels of briefings, both informative and educational.  Presentations  utilizing  35-mm slides  can  be  both  informative  and  educational, while  at  the  same  time  they  can  be  relatively inexpensive  to  produce.  Filmstrips are used primarily in an educational environment.  Each frame of the 35-mm filmstrip is related to others in such a way that an entire story or lesson can be contained in one strip. A major disadvantage of filmstrips is that they cannot be repaired (spliced) without motion.

v     TRANSPARENCIES: Transparencies losing  a  portion  of  their  informs- As  used  here,  transparencies  refer  to  large vu-graph   transparencies   projected   with overhead  projectors.  Depending  on  time  factors, the information to be presented, and the quality of  transparency  desired,  production  methods may  vary  from  typed  information  on  clear plastic  to  complex  illustrations  on  colored film.  The standard size is 7-1/2 x 9 inches (19 x 23 cm).

v     MOTION PICTURES: Motion pictures have received extensive use in training and information programs.  Until recently, 16-mm motion pictures were the primary visual aid in many programs. However, 16-mm  films  are  expensive  to  produce,  often more  general  in  nature  than  is  required  by  the course   curricula,

·         NON- PROJECTED AIDS

Those aids which are in graphic form, display form, three dimensional, equipment form; audio, audio visual, activity now discuss few of the teaching learning aids designed as non projected aids. Non projected aids are those that do not require the use of audiovisual equipment such as a projector and screen. Included in this category are   charts, graphs,   maps,   illustrations, photographs, brochures, and handouts.

v     GRAPHS:  these picture shows comparison between figures. Four types of graph are illustrated like line, bar, pie, picture graphs. The bar graph is one of the most comely used.   Graphs   are   useful   when   the information   being   presented   compares   figures from time to time or from several sources.  For example, a budget meeting may utilize graphs to show the increases and decreases of the budget over several years.

v     MAPS: Maps are graphic representations of the sur- face of the earth.  Maps are usually drawn to scale.  The  type  that  you  are  most  likely  to encounter  is  the  world  map,  used  in  conference rooms,  classrooms,  and  in  briefing  rooms.

v     ILLUSTRATIONS: Illustrations are the most versatile of any aid covered here.  All  aids  make  use  of  illustrations to  some  degree  in  their  planning  stages,  and perhaps  even  in  their  final  form.  Charts, cartoons, maps, and signs are illustrations that are often used to present or clarify an idea. Photographs Photographs  may  be  passed  from  hand  to hand  or  posted  on  a  board  in  front  of  an audience.  They can be used most effectively in small groups.  Photographs are extensively used for documentation purposes.

v     BROCHURES AND HANDOUTS: Brochures  are  small  pamphlets  composed  of illustrations  and  printed  material,  but  they  are generally   much   briefer   than   handouts.   When given to students or an audience, these materials should help the people understand the presentedtion.  Handouts are normally retained by the audience   for   purposes   of   reference   and   later review. Used to tion. Long after the presentation, they can be review important points of the presents.

NON PROJECTED DISPLAYED MATERIAL  

CHALKBOARD AND WHITEBOARD-The chalkboard (or blackboard as it was called until it was realized that such boards were seldom black any longer) is so much a part of the learning environment that it has become a symbol for education itself. Indeed, until the development of the overhead projector during the 1940's and its subsequent spread into virtually every classroom and lecture theatre, the chalkboard was probably the most important of all instructional aids (apart from the printed page). Even today, such boards are still a standard fixture in teaching and training environments, although their use is by no means as automatic and universal as was the case in the past.

HOW CHALKBOARDS SHOULD (AND SHOULD NOT) BE USED: Traditionally, the chalkboard was used in virtually every situation where textual, mathematical or graphical material had to be displayed to a class or small group - and, in some establishments, is still so used. Certainly, it is a versatile, inexpensive and useful teaching aid, and, if a teacher, instructor or trainer so wishes can be used for such straightforward expository purposes as:

• The systematic display of virtually the entire subject matter of a lecture or taught lesson to a class.
• The display of a 'skeleton guide' to such a lecture or lesson, eg in the form of a set of section and sub-section headings.
• The display of specific items (maps, diagrams, tables, etc) during such a lecture or lesson.

HOW TO DEVELOP BASIC CHALKBOARD SKILLS: Despite its long tradition of use, many teachers and trainers find the chalkboard a difficult medium to handle - often simply because they have never taken the trouble to master the necessary basic techniques. Many people, for example, hold the chalk the wrong way - holding it like a pen or pencil rather than in the correct way shown in Figure 1. As can be seen, the chalk should be held between the fingers and thumb, with the non-writing end pointing in towards the palm of the hand, and should be presented to the board at a fairly low angle.Some other useful points of technique are given below.

• Rotate the chalk slightly as you make each stroke, and change to a new facet of the chalk face for each new stroke or word (this helps to keep the lines of uniform thickness).
• Always try to place the chalk length in line with the stroke being drawn, so that the chalk is pulled across the board (note that this may necessitate the wrist being placed in an awkward position).
• Stand in such a position that you can reach the board easily with the elbow of your writing arm only slightly bent.
• Use body sway and bending of the knees to reach different parts of the board during a stroke, keeping a balanced stance throughout.
• Try to develop a clear writing or printing style that can be read without difficulty from the back of the classroom in which you are working; check this by going to the back of the room yourself.
• Leave generous spaces between words - this greatly increases legibility.
• Always try to achieve a neat, systematic lay-out, with level, uniformly-spaced lines of writing; if necessary, draw light guidelines on the board using a chalkboard ruler or T- square.

FLANNEL-BOARD

WHY USE THE FLANNEL BOARD?

1.      A flannel board is simple and inexpensive to construct. It is easy to store and light to carry. It makes you more mobile as you can move it to where your students are sitting if need be.

2.      You can use the flannel board to provide a wide range of language practice for your students from language skills, forms or functions to grammar items.

3.      Your students enjoy participating in flannel board activities if you choose materials appropriate to their mental maturity. The flannel board is not just a primary school medium.

4.      The flannel board is a dynamic medium in that it provides a way of presenting 'mobile' situations and changes can be shown by adding or taking away figurines and flashcards.

MARKERBOARDS

These boards, which are also known as whiteboards, are common in training rooms and are sometimes now fitted in teaching rooms instead of or additional to conventional chalkboards. They consist of large sheets of white or light-colored plastic material with a surface texture suitable for writing or drawing on using appropriate felt pens, markers or crayons, and can be used in much the same way as chalkboards. They have, however, a number of advantages over the latter. There is, first of all, none of the mess that always results when chalk - even the 'dustless' variety - is used. Second, a much wider range of colors and tone strengths can be used, and the resulting display is invariably sharper, better-defined and clearer than is possible using chalk. Third, a marker board - unlike a chalkboard - can double up as a projection screen if required.

ELECTRONIC MARKER BOARDS

A recent 'high tech' advance has been the appearance of the electronic marker board. This is similar to an ordinary marker board, but has the facility to carry out a photo electronic scan of whatever is written or drawn on its surface.

One form of electronic marker board uses this scanning facility to produce a reduced-size hard copy of the material so produced. Multiple copies of this can then be run off using an ordinary photocopier, so that the members of a class or group can be given individual copies of the material. Because of their high cost, such marker boards are generally only found in conference centers, high-powered commercial training organizations and other similar settings, and it is unlikely that they will ever become standard fittings in ordinary classrooms and lecture theatres. If you are fortunate enough to have access to one, however, you will find it a most versatile and useful device.

MAGNETIC BOARDS

Even more useful and versatile than felt boards and hook-and-loop boards are the various forms of magnetic board. These come in two main forms - the magnetic chalkboards that were described earlier and magnetic marker boards (sheets of ferromagnetic material with specially-painted light surfaces on which material can be written or drawn using suitable markers or pens). Both types of board enable display items made of (or backed with) magnetic material to be stuck to and moved about on their surfaces and both enable this movable display to be supplemented by writing or drawing on the board. Thus, magnetic boards can be used to produce highly sophisticated displays that enable movement and change in systems to be clearly demonstrated to a class or small group. They are, for example, an ideal medium for demonstrating military tactics or carrying out sports coaching. For coaching a basketball or football team, for example, the field of play can be painted permanently on the board, with the individual players being identified by clearly-marked magnetic discs that can be rearranged and moved about as and when required, and the various movements, run patterns, etc being shown by adding suitable arrows or lines using chalk or marker pen.

MAKING YOUR OWN MAGNETIC BOARD Both magnetic chalkboards and magnetic marker boards can be made using readily-available materials, and, although such boards will probably not prove as satisfactory as commercially purchased versions, they can be used to fulfill exactly the same basic functions. In both cases, the display surface should be made from a thin sheet of ferromagnetic material such as mild steel, which should preferably be mounted on a thicker sheet of wood or chipboard in order to give it the required rigidity. To produce a magnetic chalkboard, the surface should be painted with a suitable dark-colored matt paint, while to produce a magnetic marker board, a suitable light-colored silk or gloss paint should be used.

FLIPCHARTS

These consist of a number of large sheets of paper, fixed to a support bar, easel or a display board by clamming or pinning them along their top edges so that they can be flipped backwards or forwards as required.

ADVANTAGES OF USING FLIPCHARTS

·         Simple to use

·         Inexpensive

·         Portable

·         Need no electricity

·         Effective — they help to focus your learners’ attention

·         Useful for background information

·         Can reveal successive bits of story

·         Can record ideas from discussions and keep for future reference

CHARTS AND WALL-CHARTS

Although charts and wall-charts are basically the same, they can be distinguished in two ways:

1.      Charts usually refer to displays on large sheets of paper or cloth that are designed to be shown to a class or group in the course of lesson. Wall-charts are displays that are pinned to a wall or bulletin board and are mainly intended for casual study outside the context of a formal lesson.

2.      The material on charts are usually larger and easier to read than on wall-charts as the former has to be clearly distinguishable or legible at a distance whereas the latter can be studied at close quarters.

Both charts and wall-charts have a great advantage in that they can contain far more complicated and detailed information than say, transparencies or flipcharts

PICTORIAL MATERIALS

Pictorial materials are so easily available yet some teachers complain that they cannot get ‘good’ pictures for teaching purposes. These teachers seem to be confused with what constitutes a ‘good’ picture. Is a picture ‘good’ only when it is big enough to be seen by a class of forty students? Is it ‘good’ only when it is colorful? Is it ‘good’ only when it represents the item you want to teach? Actually, any picture in the hands of the skilful teacher can be effectively used for teaching purposes.

 SOME SUGGESTIONS ABOUT‘GOOD’ PICTURES:

·         Build a collection of pictures – all kinds of pictures: big, small, black and white, colourful – from various sources: magazines, newspapers, books, calendars, brochures and leaflets, posters, catalogues, book jackets, those downloaded from the Internet, by writing to commercial and social organizations, even drawing your own pictures.

·         Organize your collection by storing and labeling them appropriately. Large pictures should be stored separately from small pictures.

·         Mount pictures that you are going to use regularly or if the mounting helps them to be shown more effectively.

·         Make copies, enlarge or minimize the pictures as needed. Today’s photostatting machines can easily do this work for you.

 FACTORS CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING A PICTURE FOR A PARTICULAR LESSON

       APPEAL: the picture should capture the interest and imagination of your students.

       RELEVANCE: the picture should be appropriate for the purpose of the lesson – it must contribute directly to the aim of the lesson. Don’t use a picture just because it is attractive or that your students find it fascinating.

       RECOGNITION: The significant features of the picture should be within your students’ knowledge and cultural understanding.

       SIZE: If you are showing a picture to the whole class, it must be large enough to be seen clearly by all. For pair and group work, the picture can of course be smaller.

       CLARITY: Avoid crowded pictures – they can confuse and distract your students. The relevant details must be clearly seen. Choose pictures with strong outlines and contrast in tone and colour to avoid ambiguity.

POSTERS

These are similar in many ways to charts, but are usually smaller, simpler and bolder in content and style. Their main uses in the learning environment are as a means of providing decoration, atmosphere and motivation, although they can also be used to make or remind students of key points.

PRODUCING YOUR OWN POSTERS: As with charts and wall charts, ready-made posters are available from a large number of sources - very often free of charge. Nevertheless, there are occasions when it is necessary to produce 'home-made' posters for specific purposes. When doing so, you should bear the following points in mind.

• To attract attention, a poster should be dramatic, with any prominent or central feature(s) standing out sharply.
• Having caught the viewer's attention, the poster should get across its message clearly and quickly; this message should therefore be a simple one, capable of being taken in at a glance.
• A poster should also be visually attractive, even though its subject matter may be anything but pleasant (warnings about health hazards, the dangers of equipment, etc).

THREE-DIMENSIONAL DISPLAY MATERIALS

The final group of non-projected displays that we will look at differ from those described so far in that they are all three-dimensional. The group includes four basic types of materials - mobiles, models, dioramas and realia - which will now be described in turn.

MOBILES

A mobile is, in essence, a three-dimensional wall chart in which the individual components can move about. Instead of displaying a related system of pictures, words, etc on the flat surface of a wall, they are drawn on card or stenciled on metal, cut out or molded, and hung independently from the roof (or a suitable beam) using fine threads. The resulting display, which turns and changes shape as it is affected by random air currents, acquires a vitality which can never be produced in a flat display of the same material. Such mobiles can be suspended in a corner of any learning room, where they will not get in people's way, but will still be clearly visible.

HOW TO CREATE A MOBILE: Producing a mobile involves three basic stages.

1. Conceptual design. This involves choosing the basic theme for the mobile, deciding what items to include, and establishing the patterns that you want to illustrate.
2. Production of components. This involves designing and producing the individual components, which may be simple word cards, cut-out models, plastic rods, symbols or even items of realia (which can make extremely effective mobiles).
3. Assembling and mounting. This is the most difficult part, and is best done by first assembling the simplest groups of items, then combinations of such groups, and so on until a balanced, freely-moving display is achieved. At each stage, the correct position for suspension should be determined by trial and error (knowledge of basic physics helps here!). The final display should be hung from a hook or drawing pin firmly fixed into the ceiling, or from a wooden rod fixed across a corner of the room at a suitable height (such a rod can be used as a permanent suspension system for mobiles).                                                          

 REALIA

The supreme instructional 'model' is, in some cases, the article itself, since there are often considerable advantages to be gained from letting learners see or handle the 'real thing' as opposed to a mere representation thereof. In many cases, of course, this will not be practicable on grounds of availability, accessibility, safety, expense and so on, but there are many other cases where no such objections apply, and, in such cases, serious consideration should be given to the use of realia. Such materials can be used both to support expository teaching and in individualized- and group-learning situations, where they can provide learners with the sort of direct experience that can seldom be obtained through mediated learning, no matter how well contrived or expensive. When studying geology, for example, there are few satisfactory substitutes for actually handling and examining real rock specimens, while the same is true of many aspects of the study of veterinary science, biology, and physiology. Examining 'virtual' horses and bodies is still futuristic for most people.

ACQUIRING ITEMS OF REALIA FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PURPOSES: The way in which one sets about getting hold of items of realia for teaching or training purposes will, of course, depend on a number of factors, including the nature of the item(s) required, the existence (or otherwise) of convenient local sources of supply, the financial resources one has at one's disposal, and so on. It is, however, often possible to acquire specific items - or even whole collections of items - at very little cost merely be exercising a little resourcefulness (e.g. building up a collection of geological specimens by obtaining what you can locally and persuading colleagues, relatives and friends who you know will be visiting certain areas to bring you back specific items). Other types of material can sometimes be obtained from industrial firms and other organizations, who are often only too pleased to help.

REALIA CAN BE IN THE FORM OF:

v      Written text or print taken from newspapers, magazines, books, the Internet which have not been written for the purpose of second language teaching and learning.

v      Audio-visual materials not produced for the purpose of second language teaching and learning.

v      Non-linguistic such as stones, leaves, food products, clothes, etc.

 USE OF REALIA

v     Connects your students to the world outside the classroom

v     Makes language learning more relevant and meaningful

v     Prepares your students for post-classroom experience

v     Motivates your students to investigate and use L2 outside the classroom

MODELS

        Models are objects that duplicate as accurately as possible the real objects. Sometimes they are smaller versions of the real objects. Some models can be commercially bought for teaching purposes and some can teacher-made. Some useful models that you might consider having in the language classroom: model telephone, globe, clock Models (i.e. recognizable three-dimensional representations of real things or abstract systems) can play an extremely useful role in a wide range of instructional situations. They are, however, particularly useful in three specific roles, namely, as visual support materials in mass instruction, as objects for study or manipulation in individualized learning, and as construction projects for individuals, small groups or even entire classes. When using models in the first of these roles, however, it should be remembered that even the best three-dimensional model invariably appears two-dimensional except to those who are very close, so it is usually worthwhile getting the learners to gather round the model when its salient features are being demonstrated; unless you do this, you could probably achieve the same objectives in most cases by using a two-dimensional representation such as a slide, OHP transparency or projected computer graphic.

Some specific applications of models are listed below:

• They can be used to reduce very large objects and enlarge very small objects to a size that can be conveniently observed and handled.
• They can be used to demonstrate the interior structures of objects or systems with a clarity that is often not possible with two-dimensional representations and at a cost that is not yet matched by virtual-reality products.
• They can be used to demonstrate movement - another feature that it is often difficult to show adequately using two-dimensional display systems and that is more expensive in virtual-reality experiences.
• They can be used to represent a highly complex situation or process in a simplified way that can easily be understood by learners; this can be done by concentrating only on essential features, eliminating all the complex and often confusing details that are so often present in real-life systems.

MAKING YOUR OWN MODELS: The range of methods available for making models for instructional purposes is enormous, but readers may find some of the following standard techniques useful.

• Use of commercially-available kits of parts, such as the ball-and-spring systems that are used to make models of molecules and the various types of tube-and-spigot systems that can be used to make models of crystals.
• Use of construction systems such as 'Mecca no' and 'Fischer-Price' to make working models.
• Use of inexpensive materials such as cardboard, hardboard, wood and wire to make up static models of all types (models of buildings, geometrical bodies, three-dimensional shapes, and so on).
• Use of materials like modeling clay and plasticize to produce realistic models of animals, anatomical demonstrations, and so on.
• Use of materials like Plaster of Paris and paper Mache to produce model landscapes.

GOOD MODELS  

v     Demonstrating

v     Making an impact

v     Explaining a process

v     Making a topic interesting

DIORAMAS

These are still-display systems that combine a three-dimensional foreground of model buildings, figures etc. with a two-dimensional painted background, thus creating a highly-realistic effect. They can be used in the teaching of a wide range of subjects, including:

• History, drama, religious studies (representations of historical or dramatic scenes, stage sets, battles, etc.).
• Architecture, geography and geology (representations of buildings, towns, landscapes, pre-historic landscapes and scenes, etc.).
• Biology and natural history (representations of plants or animals in their natural habitats).

PRODUCING A DIORAMA: Although sophisticated dioramas of the type that are seen in museums can be extremely expensive, time-consuming and difficult to make up, it is perfectly possible for anyone possessing even the most basic of graphic and artistic skills to produce highly effective displays of this type. This can be done as follows.

1. Make a semi-circular base of the required size out of chipboard, hardboard, thick card or some other suitable material.
2. Make a strip of thin white card of suitable height that is capable of extending all the way round the curved side of the base, draw and/or paint the required background scene on this, and fix it to the base (e.g. with drawing pins).
3. Build up any landscape required in the foreground using Plaster of Paris or paper Mache, and paint this in the required color(s).
4. Produce or acquire any materials that are required for the foreground and set them in position; such materials can include model figures (cardboard cut-puts, plasticize models, etc), model buildings, model trees, model ships, tanks or other vehicles, pieces of rock, and any other materials that you feel will enhance the realism of the scene being depicted.